As a young female artists I am familiar with the struggles that women have faced to be recognised and successful within the art world, women have fought to be recognised as their own people and artists in their own right. I believe that it is interesting to look at this time period where women begin to assert themselves and yet face so much misogyny and so many limitations not only within their own movements but within wider society as well. I believe that it is important to continue to discuss and shed a light on these issues and the historic mistreatment of women so that we are able to combat it so that it may not happen again. I have chosen three movements to discuss, Dadaism, Surrealism and Constructivism. I have chosen Dadaism and Surrealism because I am particularly drawn to these movements, I find the anti establishment and anti art ideology of Dada fascinating and compelling. I also believe that the way in women became more rebellious after the first World War and became active as artists despite the hardships they faced to be compelling and empowering. With Surrealism I find I am drawn to the dream like aspect of the movement and work, I am fascinated by the unconscious mind and the way it affects our creativity. I have chosen Constructivism particularly because of the way in which the Russian revolution and the social and political state of the USSR influenced the movement and allowed female artists create successful careers for themselves, and how this contrasts the other two movements.
Dadaism and surrealism are often viewed as similar movements to a certain extent, in aims and approaches to the avant garde use of materials, and certainly of their treatment towards the women within the movements. After Dada became an international movement it went on to form the basis of surrealism with Andre Breton leaving the Dadaism movement to write the surrealist manifesto after the war [tate.org.uk, no date] [Cramer, Grant, no date]. Dada is described as a nihilistic and anti establishment movement that originated in Zurich , Switzerland in the early 20th century ,1913, [Lesso, 2023] in response to the horrors of the first World War and later spread to cities such as New York City, Berlin Cologne and Paris. [Zelazko, 2025] . The founder of Dada was a writer named Hugo Ball who ran a satirical night club in Zurich called the Cabaret Voltaire and the movement had political affinities with the radical left, being not only anti war but also anti bourgeois [tate.org.uk, no date]. Dada artists in Zurich rejected the traditions of representational and personal art and distrusted reason. They embraced chance and sought to develop an impersonal and universal language of grids shapes and forms. [Kuenzli, 2006]
Hannah Hoch was an artist involved in the Dada movement and was born in 1889 in Gotha, Germany. In 1912 Hoch moved to Berlin to persue the study of Calligraphy, embroidery, wall paper design and graphic arts, and with Raoul Hausmann, George Grosz founded Berlin Dada. Hoch and Hausmann are often said to have invented photomontage, which were works that portrayed satirical and ironic messages using photographs, and Hoch showed nine works at the First International Dada Fair in 1920. In general hochs work often critiqued the Weimer Bourgeois culture and traditional gender roles, and celebrated the pleasures of modernity and the new woman. [Lavin, 1993] Despite Hochs contributions to the movement and her innovative artwork she was shunned due to her independence, masculine was of dressing and her bisexuality. [nmwa.org, no date] In fact, when asked about their fellow artist the male members of the movement commented on her talent at providing sandwiches, beer and coffee during thought times rather than her art. [Mendelssohn, 2017] Unfortunately, Hoch is just one example of how art movements tend marginalise and oppress the women involved, seeing them as either lovers, muses or caretakers rather than fellow artists. While Dadaism prided itself on questioning authority, reality and the bourgeois western world the members rarely questioned gender roles and the treatment of women, women were still considered the second sex. [Mendelssohn, 2017]
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Hochs work ‘Strauss’ made in 1965 features a multitude of eyes layered on top of flowers positioned in the form of a bouquet that seem to have been wrapped up at the bottom. The eyes are a variety of colours including brown green and blue and I believe that the reflection of light that can be seen in each iris allows the gaze and stare of each eye to be striking, and create a surreal visual experience .[artchive.com, No date] Due to the layers within the collage I think that this creates an effective sense of depth in the work and could invoke a curious feeling within the viewer as if there is something underneath that is hiding. I believe that the positioning of the eyes is reminiscent of an Ophanim angel and this then adds a religious undertone to the work, Ophanim angels represent Gods omniscience and I think that Hoch was trying to create a concept omniscience, omnipresence and the power of observation and knowledge by doing this. I think that this has created an unnerving atmosphere throughout the work, the viewer may feel as if they are constantly under watch, as if their every move is being judged. Critical analysis of this piece from other sources have also pointed out the themes of ‘surveillance’ and ‘omnipresence’, and believe that this piece touches on the multifaceted nature of human perspective [artchive.com, no date]. However, rather than just human perspective I believe that this piece delves into the complicated nature of human identity, individuality and how identity and perspective go hand in hand. How we view ourselves and how that in turn can affect our perspective of the world around us. I think that this is done effectively with the use of the different eyes and the flowers that they are placed on top of. Some eyes are wrinkled, some are tired and some done up in makeup which I think nicely reflect the uniqueness and individuality of each eye.
Surrealism is said to be one of the most influential movements of the 20th century [vam.ac.uk, no date] and is described as a literary, philosophical and artistic movement that explores the mind, subconscious and championing the irrational. [tate.org.uk, no date]. For years, anyone involved in Surrealism had to manifest an almost unlimited faith in automatic processes. They turned the alert, thinking being over to the illogicalities of the world. [Caws, 2010] Surrealism was started by a poet named Andre Brenton, who wrote the Surrealist manifesto in 1924. Many of the concepts of Surrealism were taken and adapted from Sigmund Freuds theories and aimed to reunite the conscious and unconscious so that the world of dream and reality would be joined to the rational world in “an absolute reality, surreality.” [Zelazko, no date] due to the horrors witnessed during World war one Surrealists were heavily against the ‘rational’ actions and decisions of politicians that brought this destruction to life and believed that the world had gone mad, that the only way to find sanity was to embrace insanity.
Meret Oppenheim was born in 1913, in Berlin, Germany. She was encouraged by her father and grandmother to pursue art and in 1925 Oppenheim began studying at the kunstgewerbeschule in Basel. Oppenheim then moved to Paris and met artists such as Andre Brenton and Man Ray and became a part of the Surrealist circle, and later began a romantic relationship with Max Earnst. [blumberg, no date] In 1936 Oppenheim created her iconic piece ‘Object’ which was a fur lined teacup which then become a staple of 20th century art. [nmwa.org, no date] And although Oppenheim is usually aligned with the surrealist movement, many consider her work and use of objects to be Dada. Oppenhaim is often considered a transitional figure who links the two movements together. [theartstory.org, no date] However, as successful as she was, after the nude photographs Man Ray took of her she quickly went from being considered an artist in her own right to being misrepresented as a passive muse. [theartnewspaper.com, no date]
Meret Oppenheims piece ‘Fur Gloves With Wooden Fingers’, made in 1936 display a pair of luxurious beige fur gloves with disembodied wooden fingers [Katz, 2021] attached to the ends, with red painted finger nails. I believe that Oppenheims work is undeniably feminine, the fierce red nails stand out against the delicate pale fur. They draw attention and make a bold statement, drawing the viewer in and demanding to be seen and respected. Historically, red has been considered a more masculine colour representing things like anger and power, and I believe that Oppenheim has taken this and flipped it on its head in her work. She has used the colour red on a stereotypically feminine sculpture and I think that this is a way to show female empowerment and strength, rebelling and fighting back against the status quo, and showing that women can be just as strong and imposing as men. There is also a sense of savagery and wildness within this piece [Bedworth, 2024], as if the fingertips are dripping with blood. The fur body of the gloves, however, I think represent the duality and multi faceted nature of women. Not only can we be strong and bold, but kind and gentle as well, we are greatly in tune with our emotions and are able to understand and use them to our advantage. I believe that this entire piece is a comment on the society of the 30’s era, women rights were still not equivalent to mes and women were often overlooked and dismissed. I believe that the composition makes it seem as if these red nailed hands are tearing through the softer, more delicate structure of the gloves. As if they are trying to break through the stereotypes and perceptions that society have of them. I think that this invokes a powerful feeling and message, as if every women who sees this piece is being called up to join in, tear through the soft, fragile stereotypes and make a new path of their own.
Constructivism is an artistic and architectural movement that originated in Russia, it is believed to have been influenced by cubism and futurism and began in 1913 with Vladimir Tatlins ‘painting reliefs’ [Wolfe, no date]. Constructivists believed that art should directly reflect the modern industrial world [tate.org.uk, no date], and the movement went on to have an international impact and laid the foundation for modernist movements around the world. Influencing movements such as De Stijl and the bauhaus [Nguyen, 2023]. Constructivists saw themselves as engineers and not necessarily artists, they believed that they were the engineers of vision. [tate.org.uk, 2009]
Luibov Popova was born in 1889, Moscow, Russia and died in 1924. Popova studied painting under Impressionist Stanislav Zhukovsky in 1907 and later with painters Konstantin Yuon and Ivan Dudin in 1908. [moma.org, no date] Although Popova did not join the constructivist movement when it started in 1921 she heavily embraced the constructivist ethos, and exhibited paintings that she called ‘Spatial force constructions’. [Christina Lodder, no date] Popova is considered one of the Russian avant grades most influential artists [tate.org.uk, 2009] and was often seen as just as important as her male counterpart ‘Rodchenko’, which is a huge contrast to the women involved in the Dada and Surrealist movements. Constructivism was a movement that was more open to to femininity and difference, and the constructivists seemed inclined to support the Bolshevik policies aimed at emancipating women after the revolution. [Tupitsyn, 2009]
Popovas lanscape ‘Birsk’ painted in 1916 on a summer visit to her former governesses home near the Ural mountains [Drutt, no date] and is one of Popovas more coherent pieces. [Billingsley, No date] The painting is oil on canvas and displays deep rich tones of red, green, blue and grey. These colours are dark, earthy and assured [Kozloff, 2016] I believe that they add a lot of depth to the work as if the viewer could step right into the painting. I believe that this piece also has dream like qualities to it, it’s odd and whimsical and the way the lines curve make its seem as if the entire piece is moving in a spiral. The structure seems crystalline [Drutt, No date] as if a gem has broken and we are seeing the remaining fragments come together. The grey tones are highlighted with white to create imagery of light and shadows and they seem to form building structures that are reminiscent of concrete, I love the contrast between natural, bold colours such as the browns and greens compared to the muted grey, I think that it makes it seem as if the grey houses aren’t supposed to be there, as if they are intruding. I believe that this theme is emphasised by the sharp and harsh lines that the buildings display, the surroundings that are painted with brighter colours are soft and curved, bending outwards towards the edge of the canvas as if they are recoiling from the buildings. I believe that this Creates a captivating sense of movement within the piece as if these trees are marching around the canvas. [Kozloff, 2016] However, when looking at the top of the painting the buildings seem to bend and morph into the green hills, as if they have begun to work together with the landscape as one. I believe that this piece could be a commentary on way that the industrial and harsh aspects of Constructivism can begin to work in accordance with nature.
I believe that the comparison between the way that Popova was treated and revered within her movement, compared to the way that Hannah Hoch and Meet Oppenheim were disregarded is truly fascinating. These are 3 movements that happened just about within the same century and their views of women are so vastly different for the time. I believe the main factor of this to be the rise of the soviet union and communism within Russia and the Bolshevik political views that allowed women more equality and freedom. Oppenheim and Hoch were so often dismissed due to the chauvinistic attitudes of the men around them and the culture of the western world that allowed it to continue to happen. I believe that it is important to speak up about the prejudice that women have had to face within the art world and acknowledge that they have often had to work twice as hard to be recognised in their own right. And moving forwards we must continue to shine a light on the female artists of today and ensure that history doesn’t repeat itself.
List of References:
artchive.com, No date. Strauss (1965) by Hannah Höch [Online]. Available at: https://www.artchive.com/artwork/strauss-hannah-hoch-1965/ [Accessed 6th January 2025]
BLUMBERG, N., No date. Meret Oppenheim [Online]. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Meret-Oppenheim [Accessed 13th January 2025]
BILLINGSLEY, W., No date. Birsk [Online]. Startle. Available at: https://www.sartle.com/artwork/birsk-lyubov-popova [Accessed 5th January 2025]
BEDWORTH, C., 2024. Surrealist Meret Oppenheim in 5 artworks [Online]. Poland: Zuzanna Stanska. Available at: https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/surrealist-meret-oppenheim-in-5-works/ [Accessed 5th February 2025]
CAWS, M, A., 2012. Surrealism. London: Phaidon.
CRAMER, C and GRANT K., No date. Surealism: Origins and Precursers [Online]. Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/dada-and-surrealism/xdc974a79:surrealism/a/surrealism-origins-and-precursors#:~:text=Imagination%20above%20all,a%20more%20%E2%80%9Cthoughtful%E2%80%9D%20approach.
DRUTT, M., No date. Liubov Popova Birsk [Online]. New York: The Solomon Guggenheim Foundation. Available at: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/3493 [Accessed 15th January 2025]
KUENZLI, R., 2006. Dada. London: Phaidon.
KOZLOFF, joyce., 2016. Liubov Popova, an Homage [Online]. New York: Hyperallergic. Available at: https://hyperallergic.com/263445/liubov-popova-an-homage/ [Accessed 15th January 2025]
KATZ, B., 2021. Looking Beyond Surrealist Artist Meret Oppenheim’s Famous Furry Teacup [Online]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Magazine. Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/looking-beyond-surrealist-meret-oppenheims-famous-furry-tea-cup-180978919/ [Accessed 6th February 2025]
LODDER, C., no date. Liubov Popova: From Painting to Textile Design [Online] . London: The Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: (https://www.tate.org.uk/research/tate-papers/14/liubov-popova-from-painting-to-textile-design#:~:text=1%20On%20the%20contrary%2C%20it,the%20construction%20of%20the%20new) [Accessed 15th January 2025]
LESSO, R., 2023. What is Dadaism and where did Dada start . [Online]. Montreal: TheCollector. Available at: https://www.thecollector.com/what-is-dadaism-and-where-did-dada-start/)[Accessed 15th January 2025]
LAVIN, m., 1993. Cut With The Kitchen Knife. America: Maud Lavin
moma.org, no date. Liubov Popova [Online]. New York: The Museum of Modern Art. Available at: https://www.moma.org/artists/4694-liubov-popova [accessed 15th January]
nmwa.org, no date. Hannah Höch [online]. Washington: National Museum of Women in the Arts. Available at: (https://nmwa.org/art/artists/hannah-hoch/) [Accessed 6th January 2025]
nmwa.org, no date, Meret Oppenheim [Online]. Washington: National Museum of Women in the Arts. Available at: https://nmwa.org/art/artists/meret-oppenheim/[Accessed 13th January 2025]
MENDELSSOHN, M., 2017. The women of Dada from Hannah Höch to Beatrice Wood [Online]. New York: Available at: https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-women-dada-hannah-hoch-beatrice-wood [Accessed 5th January 2025]
MENDELSSOHN, M., 2017. The women of Dada from Hannah Höch to Beatrice wood [Online]. New York: available at: https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-women-dada-hannah-hoch-beatrice-wood [Accessed 5th January 2025]
NGUYEN, S., 2023. Revolutionary Art: A Deep Dive Into Russian Constructivism [Online]. Cyprus: 1st-art-gallery.com Available at: https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/article/russian-constructivism-deep-dive/#:~:text=Russian%20Constructivism%20had%20a%20profound,foundation%20for%20modernist%20movements%20worldwide. [Accessed 15th January]
tate.org.uk, 2009. Rodchenko and Popova: Defining Constructivism [Online]. London: The board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/press/press-releases/rodchenko-and-popova-defining-constructivism [Accessed 15th January 2025]
tate.org.uk, 2009. Rodchenko and Popova: Defining Constructivism [Online]. London: The Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: (https://www.tate.org.uk/press/press-releases/rodchenko-and-popova-defining-constructivism) [Accessed 15th January 2025]
Tupitsyn, M., 2009. Rodchenko and Popova; Defining constructivism. London: Tate Publishing.
tate.org.uk, No date. Dada [Online]. London: The Board of trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/d/dada [Accessed 5th January 2025]
tate.org.uk, No date. Surrealism [Online]. London: The Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/surrealism [Accessed January 6th]
tate.org.uk, no date. Constructivism [Online]. The Bold of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/constructivism [Accessed 15th January]
tate.org.uk, No date. Dada [Online]. London: The Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/d/dada [Accessed January 6th]
theartstory.org, No date. Meret Oppenheim [Online]. New York: The Art Story Foundation. Available at: https://www.theartstory.org/artist/oppenheim-meret/ [Accessed 13th January 2025]
theartnewspaper.com, No date. Storm in a furry teacup? There was much more to Meret Oppenheim than her most famous work [Online] Available at: London: The Art Newspaper. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2021/10/18/theres-more-to-meret-oppenheim-than-just-a-storm-in-a-teacup [Accessed 14th January 2025]
vam.ac.uk, No date. Surrealism [Online]. London: Victoria and Albert Museum. Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/surrealism?srsltid=AfmBOoqDIGM8tl5hlWz4KHFgWNaZp9tps9RdFRYHx1SZi8ceIOp4SSmE [Accessed 5th January 2025]
Wolfe, S., No date. Art movement: Constructivism [Online]. Available at: https://magazine.artland.com/art-movement-constructivism/#:~:text=Constructivism%20was%20an%20artistic%20and,a%20practice%20for%20social%20objectives [Accessed 6th January 2025]
ZELAZKO, A., 2025. Dada [Online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/art/Dada [Accessed 4th January 2025]
ZELAZKO, A., 2025. Surrealism [Online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/art/Surrealism [Accessed 5th January 2025]
List of figures:
- - ‘Strauss’ By Hannah Hoch, 1965, Available at: https://www.artchive.com/artwork/strauss-hannah-hoch-1965/ [Accessed 6th January 2025]
(2) - ‘Fur gloves With Wooden fingers’ By Meret Oppenheim, 1936, Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/may/28/unconscious-landscape-women-artists-hauser-and-wirth-somerset-review [Accessed 13th January 2025]
(3) - ‘Birsk’ By Liubov Popova, 1916, Available at: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/3493 [Accessed 15th January 2025]
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